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Go where you may within the
bounds of California, mountains are ever in sight, charming and glorifying
every landscape. Yet so simple and massive is the topography of the State in
general views, that the main central portion displays only one valley, and
two chains of mountains which seem almost perfectly regular in trend and
height: the Coast Range on the west side, the Sierra Nevada on the east.
These two ranges coming together in curves on the north and south inclose a
magnificent basin, with a level floor more than four hundred miles long, and
from thirty-five to sixty miles wide. This is the grand Central Valley of
California, the waters of which have only one outlet to the sea through the
Golden Gate. But with this general simplicity of features there is great
complexity of hidden detail. The Coast Range, rising as a grand green
barrier against the ocean, from two to eight thousand feet high, is composed
of innumerable forest-crowned spurs, ridges, and rolling hill waves which
inclose a multitude of smaller valleys; some looking out through long,
forest-lined vistas to the sea; others, with but few trees, to the Central
Valley; while a thousand others yet smaller are embosomed and concealed in
mild, roundbrowed hills, each with its own climate, soil, and productions.
Making your way through the mazes of the Coast
Range to the summit of any of the inner peaks or passes opposite San
Francisco, in the clear springtime, the grandest and most telling of all
California landscapes is outspread before you. At your feet lies the great
Central Valley glowing golden in the sunshine, extending north and south
farther than the eye can reach, one smooth, flowery, lake-like bed of
fertile soil. Along its eastern margin rises the mighty Sierra, miles in
height, reposing like a smooth, cumulus cloud in the sunny sky, and so
gloriously colored, and so luminous, it seems to be not clothed with light,
but wholly composed of it, like the wall of some celestial city. Along the
top, and extending a good way down, you see a pale, pearl-gray belt of snow;
and below it a belt of blue and dark purple, marking the extension of the
forests; and along the base of the range a broad belt of rose-purple and
yellow, where lie the miner's gold-fields and the foothill gardens. All
these colored belts blending smoothly make a wall of light ineffably fine,
and as beautiful as a rainbow, yet firm as adamant.
When I first enjoyed this superb view, one
glowing April day, from the summit of the Pacheco Pass, the Central Valley,
but little trampled or ploughed as yet, was one furred, rich sheet of golden
compositae, and the luminous wall of the mountains shone in all its glory.
Then it seemed to me the Sierra should be called, not the Nevada, or Snowy
Range, but the Range of Light. And after ten years spent in the heart of it,
rejoicing and wondering, bathing in its glorious floods of light, seeing the
sunbursts of morning among the icy peaks, the noonday radiance on the trees
and rocks and snow, the flush of the alpenglow, and a thousand dashing
waterfalls with their marvelous abundance of irised spray, it still seems to
me above all others the Range of Light, the most divinely beautiful of all
the mountain chains I have ever seen.
The Sierra is about five hundred miles long,
seventy miles wide, and from seven thousand to nearly fifteen thousand feet
high. In general views no mark of man is visible on it, nor anything to
suggest the richness of the life it cherishes, or the depth and grandeur of
its sculpture. None of its magnificent forest-crowned ridges rises much
above the general level to publish its wealth. No great valley or lake is
seen, or river, or group of well-marked features of any kind, standing out
in distinct pictures. Even the summit peaks, so clear and high in the sky,
seem comparatively smooth and featureless. Nevertheless, glaciers are still
at work in the shadows of the peaks, and thousands of lakes and meadows
shine and bloom beneath them, and the whole range is furrowed with canons to
a depth of from two to five thousand feet, in which once flowed majestic
glaciers, and in which now flow and sing a band of beautiful rivers.
Though of such stupendous depth, these famous
canons are not raw, gloomy, jagged-walled gorges, savage and inaccessible.
With rough passages here and there they still make delightful pathways for
the mountaineer, conducting from the fertile lowlands to the highest icy
fountains, as a kind of mountain streets full of charming life and light,
graded and sculptured by the ancient glaciers, and presenting, throughout
all their courses, a rich variety of novel and attractive scenery, the most
attractive that has yet been discovered in the mountain ranges of the world.
In many places, especially in the middle region
of the western flank of the range, the main canons widen into spacious
valleys or parks, diversified like artificial landscape gardens, with
charming groves and meadows, and thickets of blooming bushes, while the
lofty, retiring walls, infinitely varied in form and sculpture, are fringed
with ferns, flowering plants of many species, oaks, and evergreens, which
find anchorage on a thousand narrow steps and benches; while the whole is
enlivened and made glorious with rejoicing streams that come dancing and
foaming over the sunny brows of the cliffs to join the shining river that
flows in tranquil beauty down the middle of each one of them.
The walls of these park valleys of the Yosemite
kind are made up of rocks, mountains in size, partly separated from each
other by narrow gorges and side-canons; and they are so sheer in front, and
so compactly built together on a level floor, that, comprehensively seen,
the parks they inclose look like immense halls or temples lighted from
above. Every rock seems to glow with life. Some lean back in majestic
repose; others, absolutely sheer, or nearly so, for thousands of feet,
advance their brows in thoughtful attitudes beyond their companions, giving
welcome to storms and calms alike, seemingly conscious yet heedless of
everything going on about them, awful in stern majesty, types of permanence,
yet associated with beauty of the frailest and most fleeting forms; their
feet set in pine groves and gay emerald meadows, their brows in the sky;
bathed in light, bathed in floods of singing water, while snow-clouds,
avalanches, and the winds shine and surge and wreathe about them as the
years go by, as if into these mountain mansions Nature had taken pains to
gather her choicest treasures to draw her lovers into close and confiding
communion with her.
Here, too, in the middle region of deepest canons are the grandest forest
trees, the sequoia, king of conifers, the noble sugar and yellow pines,
Douglas spruce, libocedrus, and the silver firs, each a giant of its kind,
assembled together in one and the same forest, surpassing all other
coniferous forests in the world, both in the number of its species and in
the size and beauty of its trees. The winds flow in melody through their
colossal spires, and they are vocal everywhere with the songs of birds and
running water. Miles of fragrant ceanothus and manzanita bushes bloom
beneath them, and lily gardens and meadows, and damp, ferny glens in endless
variety of fragrance and color, compelling the admiration of every observer.
Sweeping on over ridge and valley, these noble trees extend a continuous
belt from end to end of the range, only slightly interrupted by sheer-walled
canons at intervals of about fifteen and twenty miles. Here the great burly
brown bears delight to roam, harmonizing with the brown boles of the trees
beneath which they feed. Deer, also, dwell here, and find food and shelter
in the ceanothus tangles, with a multitude of smaller people. Above this
region of giants, the trees grow smaller until the utmost limit of the
timber-line is reached on the stormy mountain-slopes at a height of from ten
to twelve thousand feet above the sea, where the dwarf pine is so lowly and
hard beset by storms and heavy snow, it is pressed into flat tangles, over
the tops of which we may easily walk. Below the main forest belt the trees
likewise diminish in size, frost and burning drouth repressing and blasting
alike. The rose-purple
zone along the base of the range comprehends nearly all the famous gold
region of California. And here it was that miners from every country under
the sun assembled in a wild, torrent-like rush to seek their fortunes. On
the banks of every river, ravine, and gully they have left their marks.
Every gravel- and boulder-bed has been desperately riddled over and over
again. But in this region the pick and shovel, once wielded with savage
enthusiasm, have been laid away, and only quartz-mining is now being carried
on to any considerable extent. The zone in general is made up of low, tawny,
waving foothills, roughened here and there with brush and trees, and
outcropping masses of slate, colored gray and red with lichens. The smaller
masses of slate, rising abruptly from the dry, grassy sod in leaning slabs,
look like ancient tombstones in a deserted burying-ground. In early spring,
say from February to April, the whole of this foothill belt is a paradise of
bees and flowers. Refreshing rains then fall freely, birds are busy building
their nests, and the sunshine is balmy and delightful. But by the end of May
the soil, plants, and sky seem to have been baked in an oven. Most of the
plants crumble to dust beneath the foot, and the ground is full of cracks;
while the thirsty traveler gazes with eager longing through the burning
glare to the snowy summits looming like hazy clouds in the distance.
The trees, mostly Quercus Douglasii and Pinus
Sabiniana, thirty to forty feet high, with thin, pale-green foliage, stand
far apart and cast but little shade. Lizards glide about on the rocks
enjoying a constitution that no drouth can dry, and ants in amazing numbers,
whose tiny sparks of life seem to burn the brighter with the increasing
heat, ramble industriously in long trains in search of food. Crows, ravens,
magpies — friends in distress — gather on the ground beneath the best shade
trees, panting with drooping wings and bills wide open, scarce a note from
any of them during the midday hours. Quails, too, seek the shade during the
heat of the day about tepid pools in the channels of the larger mid-river
streams. Rabbits scurry from thicket to thicket among the ceanothus bushes,
and occasionally a long-eared hare is seen cantering gracefully across the
wider openings. The nights are calm and dewless during the summer, and a
thousand voices proclaim the abundance of life, notwithstanding the
desolating effect of dry sunshine on the plants and larger animals. The
hylas make a delightfully pure and tranquil music after sunset; and coyotes,
the little, despised dogs of the wilderness, brave, hardy fellows, looking
like withered wisps of hay, bark in chorus for hours. Mining-towns, most of
them dead, and a few living ones with bright bits of cultivation about them,
occur at long intervals along the belt, and cottages covered with climbing
roses, in the midst of orange and peach orchards, and sweet-scented
hayfields in fertile flats where water for irrigation may be had. But they
are mostly far apart, and make scarce any mark in general views.
Every winter the High Sierra and the middle
forest region get snow in glorious abundance, and even the foothills are at
times whitened. Then all the range looks like a vast beveled wall of purest
marble. The rough places are then made smooth, the death and decay of the
year is covered gently and kindly, and the ground seems as clean as the sky.
And though silent in its flight from the clouds and when it is taking its
place on rock, or tree, or grassy meadow, how soon the gentle snow finds a
voice! Slipping from the heights, gathering in avalanches, it booms and
roars like thunder, and makes a glorious show as it sweeps down the
mountain-side, arrayed in long, silken streamers and wreathing, swirling
films of crystal dust.
The north half of the range is mostly covered with floods of lava, and
dotted with volcanoes and craters, some of them recent and perfect in form,
others in various stages of decay. The south half is composed of granite
nearly from base to summit, while a considerable number of peaks, in the
middle of the range, are capped with metamorphic slates, among which, are
Mounts Dana and Gibbs to the east of Yosemite Valley. Mount Whitney, the
culminating point of the range near its southern extremity, lifts its
helmet-shaped crest to a height of nearly 14,700 feet. Mount Shasta, a
colossal volcanic cone, rises to a height of 14,440 feet at the northern
extremity, and forms a noble landmark for all the surrounding region within
a radius of a hundred miles. Residual masses of volcanic rocks occur
throughout most of the granitic southern portion also, and a considerable
number of old volcanoes on the flanks, especially along the eastern base of
the range near Mono Lake and southward. But it is only to the northward that
the entire range, from base to summit, is covered with lava.
From the summit of Mount Whitney only granite is
seen. Innumerable peaks and spires but little lower than its own
storm-beaten crags rise in groups like forest trees, in full view,
segregated by canons of tremendous depth and ruggedness. On Shasta nearly
every feature in the vast view speaks of the old volcanic fires. Far to the
northward, in Oregon, the icy volcanoes of Mount Pitt and the Three Sisters
rise above the dark evergreen woods. Southward innumerable smaller craters
and cones are distributed along the axis of the range and on each flank. Of
these, Lassen's Butte is the highest, being nearly eleven thousand feet
above sea-level. Miles of its flanks are reeking and bubbling with hot
springs, many of them so boisterous and sulphurous they seem ever ready to
become spouting geysers like those of the Yellowstone.
The Cinder Cone near marks the most recent
volcanic eruption in the Sierra. It is a symmetrical truncated cone about
seven hundred feet high, covered with gray cinders and ashes, and has a
regular unchanged crater on its summit, in which a few small two-leaved
pines are growing. These show that the age of the cone is not less than
eighty years. It stands between two lakes, which a short time ago were one.
Before the cone was built, a flood of rough vesieular lava was poured into
the lake, cutting it in two, and, overflowing its banks, the fiery flood
advanced into the pine woods, overwhelming the trees in its way, the charred
ends of some of which may still be seen projecting from beneath the snout of
the lava stream where it came to rest. Later still there was an eruption of
ashes and loose obsidian cinders, probably from the same vent, which,
besides forming the Cinder Cone, scattered a heavy shower over the
surrounding woods for miles to a depth of from six inches to several feet.
The history of this last Sierra eruption is also
preserved in the traditions of the Pitt River Indians. They tell of a
fearful time of darkness, when the sky was black with ashes and smoke that
threatened every living thing with death, and that when at length the sun
appeared once more it was red like blood.
Less recent craters in great numbers roughen the
adjacent region; some of them with lakes in their throats, others overgrown
with trees and flowers, Nature in these old hearths and firesides having
literally given beauty for ashes. On the northwest side of Mount Shasta
there is a subordinate cone about three thousand feet below the summit,
which has been active subsequent to the breaking up of the main ice-cap that
once covered the mountain, as is shown by its comparatively unwasted crater
and the streams of unglaciated lava radiating from it. The main summit is
about a mile and a half in diameter, bounded by small crumbling peaks and
ridges, among which we seek in vain for the outlines of the ancient crater.
These ruinous masses, and the deep glacial
grooves that flute the sides of the mountain, show that it has been
considerably lowered and wasted by ice; how much we have no sure means of
knowing. Just below the extreme summit hot sulphurous gases and vapor issue
from irregular fissures, mixed with spray derived from melting snow, the
last feeble expression of the mighty force that built the mountain. Not in
one great convulsion was Shasta given birth. The crags of the summit and the
sections exposed by the glaciers down the sides display enough of its
internal framework to prove that comparatively long periods of quiescence
intervened between many distinct eruptions, during which the cooling lavas
ceased to flow, and became permanent additions to the bulk of the growing
mountain. With alternate haste and deliberation eruption succeeded eruption
till the old volcano surpassed even its present sublime height.
Standing on the icy top of this, the grandest of
all the fire-mountains of the Sierra, we can hardly fail to look forward to
its next eruption. Gardens, vineyards, homes have been planted confidingly
on the flanks of volcanoes which, after remaining steadfast for ages, have
suddenly blazed into violent action, and poured forth overwhelming floods of
fire. It is known that more than a thousand years of cool calm have
intervened between violent eruptions. Like gigantic geysers spouting molten
rock instead of water, volcanoes work and rest, and we have no sure means of
knowing whether they are dead when still, or only sleeping.
Along the western base of the range a telling
series of sedimentary rocks containing the early history of the Sierra are
now being studied. But leaving for the present these first chapters, we see
that only a very short geological time ago, just before the coming on of
that winter of winters called the glacial period, a vast deluge of molten
rocks poured from many a chasm and crater on the flanks and summit of the
range, filling lake basins and river channels, and obliterating nearly every
existing feature on the northern portion. At length these all-destroying
floods ceased to flow. But while the great volcanic cones built up along the
axis still burned and smoked, the whole Sierra passed under the domain of
ice and snow. Then over the bald, featureless, fire-blackened mountains,
glaciers began to crawl, covering them from the summits to the sea with a
mantle of ice; and then with infinite deliberation the work went on of
sculpturing the range anew. These mighty agents of erosion, halting never
through unnumbered centuries, crushed and ground the flinty lavas and
granites beneath their crystal folds, wasting and building until in the
fullness of time the Sierra was born again, brought to light nearly as we
behold it to-day, with glaciers and snow-crushed pines at the top of the
range, wheat-fields and orange-groves at the foot of it.
This change from icy darkness and death to life
and beauty was slow, as we count time, and is still going on, north and
south, over all the world wherever glaciers exist, whether in the form of
distinct rivers, as in Switzerland, Norway, the mountains of Asia, and the
Pacific Coast; or in continuous mantling folds, as in portions of Alaska,
Greenland, Franz-Joseph-Land, Nova Zembla, Spitzbergen, and the lands about
the South Pole. But in no country, as far as I know, may these majestic
changes be studied to better advantage than in the plains and mountains of
California. Toward the
close of the glacial period, when the snow-clouds became less fertile and
the melting waste of sunshine became greater, the lower folds of the
.ice-sheet in California, discharging fleets of icebergs into the sea, began
to shallow and recede from the lowlands, and then move slowly up the flanks
of the Sierra in compliance with the changes of climate. The great white
mantle on the mountains broke up into a series of glaciers more or less
distinct and river-like, with many tributaries, and these again were melted
and divided into still smaller glaciers, until now only a few of the
smallest residual topmost branches of the grand system exist on the cool
slopes of the summit peaks.
Plants and animals, biding their time, closely
followed the retiring ice, bestowing quick and joyous animation on the
newborn landscapes. Pine trees marched up the sun-warmed moraines in long,
hopeful files, taking the ground and establishing themselves as soon as it
was ready for them; brown-spiked sedges fringed the shores of the newborn
lakes; young rivers roared in the abandoned channels of the glaciers;
flowers bloomed around the feet of the great burnished domes, — while with
quick fertility mellow beds of soil, settling and warming, offered food to
multitudes of Nature's waiting children, great and small, animals as well as
plants; mice, squirrels, marmots, deer, bears, elephants, etc. The ground
burst into bloom with magical rapidity, and the young forests into bird
song: life in every form warming and sweetening and growing richer as the
years passed away over the mighty Sierra so lately suggestive of death and
consummate desolation only.
It is hard without long and loving study to
realize the magnitude of the work done on these mountains during the last
glacial period by glaciers, which are only streams of closely compacted
snow-crystals. Careful study of the phenomena presented goes to show that
the pre-glacial condition of the range was comparatively simple: one vast
wave of stone in which a thousand mountains, domes, canons, ridges, etc.,
lay concealed. And in the development of these Nature chose for a tool, not
the earthquake or lightning to rend and split asunder, not the stormy
torrent or eroding rain, but the tender snow-flowers noiselessly falling
through unnumbered centuries, the offspring of the sun and sea. Laboring
harmoniously in united strength, they crushed and ground and wore away the
rocks in their march, making vast beds of soil, and at the same time
developed and fashioned the landscapes into the delightful variety of hill
and dale and lordly mountain that mortals call beauty. Perhaps more than a
mile in average depth has the range been thus degraded during the last
glacial period, — a quantity of mechanical work almost inconceivably great.
And our admiration must be excited again and again as we toil and study and
learn that this vast job of rock-work, so far-reaching in its influences,
was done by agents so fragile and small as are these flowers of the mountain
clouds. Strong only by force of numbers, they carried away entire mountains,
particle by particle, block by block, and cast them into the sea;
sculptured, fashioned, modeled all the range, and developed its predestined
beauty. All these new Sierra landscapes were evidently predestined, for the
physical structure of the rocks on which the features of the scenery depend
was acquired while they lay at least a mile deep below the pre-glacial
surface. And it was while these features were taking form in the depths of
the range, the particles of the rocks marching to their appointed places in
the dark with reference to the coming beauty, that the particles of icy
vapor in the sky marching to the same music assembled to bring them to the
light. Then, after their grand task was done, these bands of snow-flowers,
these mighty glaciers, were melted and removed as if of no more importance
than dew destined to last but an hour. Few, however, of Nature's agents have
left monuments so noble and enduring as they. The great granite domes a mile
high, the canons as deep, the noble peaks, the Yosemite valleys, these, and
indeed nearly all other features of the Sierra scenery, are glacier
monuments.
Contemplating the works of these flowers of the sky, one may easily fancy
them endowed with life: messengers sent down to work in the mountain mines
on errands of divine love. Silently flying through the darkened air,
swirling, glinting, to their appointed places, they seem to have taken
counsel together, saying, "Come, we are feeble; let us help one another. We
are many, and together we will be strong. Marching in close, deep ranks, let
us roll away the stones from these mountain sepulchers, and set the
landscapes free. Let us uncover these clustering domes. Here let us carve a
lake basin; there, a Yosemite Valley; here, a channel for a river with
fluted steps and brows for the plunge of songful cataracts. Yonder let us
spread broad sheets of soil, that man and beast may be fed; and here pile
trains of boulders for pines and giant sequoias. Here make ground for a
meadow; there, for a garden and grove, making it smooth and fine for small
daisies and violets and beds of heathy bryanthus, spicing it well with
crystals, garnet feldspar, and zircon." Thus and so on it has oftentimes
seemed to me sang and planned and labored the hearty snow-flower crusaders;
and nothing that I can write can possibly exaggerate the grandeur and beauty
of their work. Like morning mist they have vanished in sunshine, all save
the few small companies that still linger on the coolest mountain-sides,
and, as residual glaciers, are still busily at work completing the last of
the lake basins, the last beds of soil, and the sculpture of some of the
highest peaks. |
