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Note: This is part of section IV of the
above mentioned publication.
The full text can be found
here in pdf format.
The Emigrant's Directory and Guide
To obtain lands and effect a settlement in the Canadas by Francis A.
Evans, Esq., Late Agent for the Eastern Townships to the legislature of
Lower Canada (1833)
HOW TO ASCERTAIN THE QUALITY OF LANDS.
Next to the choice of situation, that which concerns a settler, before he
should take any steps towards making a bargain, is to make himself
acquainted with the quality of the soil; for which let him remember, in
the first place, that when choosing land in a state of nature, he may
commonly know its quality by the Sort of timber growing thereon. Thus, a
mixture of all kinds of hard and soft wood, (that is, evergreens and such
as shed their leaves,) of a healthy growth, without too much underwood,
has a corresponding good soil fitted for most sorts of agricultural
productions. When the land is covered with firs or evergreen trees, called
soft wood, they indicate a poor sandy soil, which is by no means to be
recommended. The absence of all fir or soft wood, denotes a better
quality, and if there be no timber growing on it but maple and beech, the
soil is light and sandy. From a growth of large elm, maple, birch, oak,
walnut, beech, basswood, and some hemlock, with little underwood, may be
expected the best soil, if dry; but examination will satisfy the inquirer.
Large tracts of flat land are often met
with, covered mostly with tamarack or larch, where the upper soil is sandy
to the depth of from eight to twelve inches on a substratum of marly clay,
which, when cleared and drained is very durable and good, as deep
ploughing brings up the clay and fertilizes the surface. Emigrants,
however, seldom like to settle on such land, while the French Canadians
generally prefer it, the largest tracts of this quality being found in the
seigniories, near the St. Laurence, in Lower Canada. This sort is not
susceptible of such speedy cultivation as the former kinds, it being
generally necessary to drain it, and extract the roots of the trees,
before it can be ploughed or cultivated to advantage; while, on the other
hand, hardwood upland can be immediately cultivated the same year, after
having cleared off the timber, without extracting the roots; or even
beforehand, the crop often amply repaying the expense of clearing and
bringing it to that state.
DIRECTIONS RELATIVE TO THE OBTAINING OF LANDS -SECURING TITLES THEREIN
WITH SOME REMARKS ON THE SEVERAL KINDS OF TITLE, &C.
Government heretofore adopted various methods in settling the waste lands,
by several successive plans laid down for that purpose. A complement of
land was given gratis to every settler, on certain conditions of
settlement; but this is now no longer the case, as at present all the
crown lands are sold on easy terms of payment. Officers and discharged
soldiers, however, receive grants gratis, in the following proportions:-
Privates, 100 acres; sergeants, 200; sergeant-majors 300; Subalterns 500;
Captains 800; Majors 1000; and all higher officers 1200 acres.
It is thought the British Government were
led into the plan of selling land, from the comparative failure of the
several other plans that had been previously adopted, and from a hope that
such a system would tend to prevent the accumulation of large tracts in
the hands of unimproving individuals. Commissioners for the sale of crown
lands have been accordingly appointed in the several provinces, who keep
offices for this purpose at the Seats of Government where all persons may
purchase at a fixed rate, called "The upset price." There are also for the
same purpose in various parts of the country, Agents appointed by these
Commissioners. In several places, at certain periods of the year, "The
upset price" being fixed by Government, lands are set up for sale and
struck off to the highest bidder on any of the following conditions.-In
the first place, to such as pay the full price, they immediately get from
the Crown a direct title in free and common soccage for ever. Next, to
those who pay down one fourth of the purchase the three other parts in
annual instalments, free of interest: no right further than occupying it
is given, until the whole purchase money is paid; and the land, if not
paid for as agreed, may again be sold. Poor persons wanting 100 acres, or
less, may have the same by paying down one year's interest on the amount
of the purchase, and every other year doing the same till the principal
shall have been paid up; the land being liable to revert to the Crown, if
the interest be not punctually paid:-the purchaser may however, instead of
continuing the plan of paying this way, clear up what may be still unpaid
of the principal at any time convenient. Unless the whole of the purchase
money be paid, no person can sell or transfer lands thus obtained, without
the consent of Government, which is easily got if the parties wish, or
appear to act uprightly. The emigrant may be able to effect a purchase of
crown land on any of the conditions now mentioned, in Quebec, or in York,
on his arrival in either province, and choose such terms as will best suit
his views and circumstances, as the title obtained from tile crown is the
best that can be' procured. To these offices therefore the settler is
particularly referred, as by making himself there acquainted with the
terms and some other particulars, it will give him a general idea of the
value of lands in the several townships and their vicinities.
The prices of Crown lands for the current
year, (1832) in Lower Canada, in the townships open for sale, are as
follows-In the townships of Stanbridge and Dunham ten shillings per acre.
In Farnham, Stanstead, and Compton four shillings per acre. In Sutton,
Granby, Shefford, Milton, Potton, Barnston, Clifton, Hereford, Eaton,
Shipton, Windsor, Kingsey, Melbourne, Ely, Durham, and Upton, five
shillings. In Bolton, Westbury, Newport, Wickham, Ireland, Leeds, Hallifax,
and Inverness, four shillings. In Wendover, Caxton, &c. two shillings and
six-pence. In the townships on the Ottawa river, and south of Montreal,
five shillings. And in those of Stoneham and Tewkesbury, north of Quebec,
four shillings.
In other cases when the settler purchases
land from private individuals, or from proprietors on an extensive scale,
who are always met with in large towns, good titles may be had, but he
will do well to have proper legal advice as to the manner of sale,
security of title, &c. In the townships of Lower Canada, and in Upper
Canada, offices are established for the registry of any incumbrance
affecting real or landed property, and in such places secure titles may be
easily obtained; otherwise, great caution is requisite in persons who are
unacquainted with the laws and customs of the colony, as in a considerable
extent of the settled parts of Lower Canada it is difficult to procure
good or sufficiently secured titles to land.
Partially cleared lots which would make
desirable farms, may be had for ever in most settled parts; they can be
procured in more easily, and on cheaper terms, than wooded land could be
purchased for and afterwards cleared by a person who is a stranger to that
business, and are more desirable to the British farmer who, by availing
himself of such lots, would be at once able to settle and keep stock to
farm with, and thus be the sooner in the actual enjoyment of comforts, and
free from those inconveniences that are sometimes felt by those locating
in the woods. In many cases such farms with from ten to thirty acres or
more of cleared land, can be purchased for less money than wood land,
adding thereto the cost of clearing, being put into that state by persons
who prefer clearing to farming;, therefore to the settler who has got
sufficient money for that purpose, such farms would be an advantage if the
soil be good, on the contrary, if bad, the labour of clearing is thrown
away, and his circumstances become the most uncomfortable. Bad land being
harder to be cleared than good, which fulfils the old Yankee proverb, "it
is like a bad horse, hard to be caught, and when caught, good for
nothing."
Another method of obtaining land, of which
it may be necessary to apprise the settler, prevails in the Canadas.
Persons advanced in life are often met with, who, either not having
children, or having them already settled in life, desire to make their old
age comfortable without labour. They will give their farms, implements,
and stock, to an honest industrious person, who binds himself either to
support them during their lives, or else may pay them a certain rent for
the same term, upon the expiration of which, the tenant enjoys the whole
without further payment. In such cases, he will do well to be cautious,
and consult an honest lawyer on the form, conditions, &c. before he
involve himself in what, if not properly secured, may ultimately prove to
have been a severe burden. But if all things are found regular and fair,
the acquisition of a cleared farm and stock by this means, would be a
great advantage to the poor settler.
It is common also to rent farms for terms
of from one to seven years, longer leases not being frequently given; in
such cases the yearly rent is from seven shillings and six pence to
fifteen shillings per acre near the cities and large towns, and from five
to ten shillings at a distance of from ten to twenty miles. Cleared farms
are also frequently let on shares; that is, the owner of the farm stocks
it with horses, cattle, agricultural implements, and half the seed
necessary to be planted or sown; the tenant in return is to pay as rent
half of the whole increase of the stock produced on the farm; being bound
in all cases to cultivate it to advantage, and take all necessary care of
its fences, and of such other matters as may require to be attended to.
The Upper Canada Land Company, who have
agents in Quebec, Montreal, and various other parts, have vast quantities
of land scattered all over the upper province, besides the Huron Tract
already noticed, which consists of 1,000,000 acres near Lake Huron, 600
miles above Montreal. Their agents will be able to inform the emigrant of
their terms, and to show from surveys the various situations and lands to
be disposed of, the quality of the soil and all other particulars
connected with it, as well as the route to be taken by the purchaser. They
give titles of the land they dispose of, in free and common soccage for
ever.
The lands granted by the British
government, since the conquest of Canada from the French, which include
almost the whole of the upper and the townships in the lower province, are
granted in free and common soccage; by this tenure the owner is lord of
the soil, which is not liable to any rent or charge whatever, mines only
being reserved by the crown; and in this manner the land is sold and
transferred from one to another, subject to no condition or reservation
unless by mutual agreement.
In Lower Canada that tract along both banks
of the St. Laurence, from its mouth to Upper Canada, and extending back
from the river from ten to twenty miles or more, having been granted by
the French government before the conquest, is conceeded under a decription
of title not familiar to the British settler; it shall, therefore, be
described more particularly, as there are many desirable tracts of
seignorial land, very favourably situated near the St. Laurence, and
easily obtained. The substance of what follows on this head is taken from
a work on Canada, by Colonel Bouchette, Surveyor General.
The lands alluded to were conceded by the
French king in Seigniories, Fiefs, or Baronies, according to the Feudal
system. The Seignior holding the seigniory, fief, or barony, from the king
as lord paramount for public settlement, each seignior as he comes into
possession, and on the accession of a new sovereign, is obliged to do
homage and fealty for his seigniory, and on all transfers or sales of the
seigniory to pay to the king a quint or fifth part of the purchase, which,
if paid instanter, causes a reduction of two-thirds; so that in fact the
seignior was not much more than an agent to the king, to settle a portion
of the country, and receive certain emoluments for doing so and taking
care of the same. The seigniory is more or less in size from one to one
hundred square miles in surface. The Seigniors are by law obliged to
concede or lease lots, of about ninety acres each, of the seigniory to
tenants or censitaires on certain conditions that are easy: the tenant has
a lease for ever and pays for a lot from a halfpenny to a penny per acre
yearly, with other trifling considerations which come to about the same.
Latterly the seigniors have been charging more, whether legal or not, is
not so clearly, ascertained. The seignior has the exclusive right to the
grist mills on his seigniory, to which the tenants are obliged to give
employment, by using them when they have any thing in that way to get
ground the charge being one-fourteenth for grinding. Lands are also held
on leases of from twenty to fifty years or more, subject to a very small
rent, which titles are termed bail amphiteotique. Other lands are held by
what is called Franc allen, a freehold similar to what is called free and
common soccage, being exempt from all charges to any person but the king.
Another sort of title is called censive, subject to a yearly rent in money
or produce. All these that have been enumerated include the different
forms of title granted in the seigniories.
A most material privilege however belongs
to the seignior or landlord of the seigniory, which is called lods et
vente or part of the sales, being a twelfth part of the value of all farms
sold from one to another on his seigniory, which every purchaser must pay;
but a deduction of one-fourth is made for prompt payment. Thus, whenever a
farm on a seigniory is sold, the seignior claims a twelfth of its value,
which is a great draw back on industry; for if a person takes a lot worth
10£, and then expends on it 1190£, thereby making it worth 1200£, on the
sale thereof the seignior claims 100£, to which he can have no equitable
claim, though legal. Besides these privileges and emoluments to the
seignior, he has the right also of droit de retrait, which is, that he can
claim any farm sold by the tenant, within forty days after the sale, by
paying the highest price for the same. He can also claim a tithe of all
fish caught on the seigniory, besides being entitled to fell forest timber
any where on the same for his house, mills, roads, public works, and the
churches. Some seigniors have compounded for all their rights, unless lods
et vente, by receiving a greater yearly rent, that is, from fifteen to
twenty shillings per lot: The same remedy might be applied for lods et
vent: also, and thus have justice done to all, by charging a yearly rent;
and not suffering it to be as at present a tax on improvement. However,
when the land is not sold there is no lods et vents to pay, which is only
a grievance when a sale takes place. The French Canadians are generally
partial to the seignorial titles, perhaps from habit, and in consequence
of having them associated as they are with their laws and religion; the
Roman Catholics, who occupy farms in the seigniories, are obliged to pay a
tithe of one twenty-fifth, of all grain raised by them, to their own
clergy, besides assisting to build and repair their churches, parsonages,
&c. The seigniors to whom these seigniories belong, either live on them or
have resident agents, who are always ready to concede lands, and give
titles at once with scarcely any expense.
CURRENCY OR COIN CURRENT IN CANADA.
Before we proceed farther, it is necessary
to inform the stranger, that the pounds, shillings; and pence, in these
colonies, commonly called Halifax currency, are in value ten per cent
below the pounds, shillings, and pence, sterling. Thus 100£ sterling is
equivalent to 110£ currency. All the current gold, silver, and copper
coins of Europe and America pass here in that proportion of value. The
guinea and sovereign pass respectively for about twenty three shillings
and four pence, and twenty-two shillings, and some times more if the rate
of exchange is high on England; the dollar five shillings; the British
shilling one and a penny; the English and French crown five shillings and
six pence, and their several parts in proportion. In most places bargains
are made by the number of dollars, as four dollars make one pound, which
is a ready mode of calculating. It is hoped that this will not be
considered an irrelevant digression, as the emigrant who has not had
experience himself in these matter, must require to be taught by others in
order that he may find the less embarrassment in making such preliminary
arrangements as are necessary before he can proceed to occupy himself in
the more immediate works of agriculture.
SOME MATTERS TO BE PROVIDED ON PROCEEDING
TO SETTLE.
Having now endeavoured to give, in what I
conceived to be the most natural order, such directions and information so
that the emigrant cannot be at a loss how to conduct himself in any of the
preparatory steps to be taken, either in making choice of situation,
ascertaining the quality and properties of the soil, making a purchase, or
procuring a lease of a farm, and securing his title therein, I shall next
proceed to give such further hints as be may find useful, after all the
other arrangements shall have been fully made to his satisfaction; before
which, it may be no harm, in addition to what has been already said, again
to remind him that however good the quality of the land may be or eligible
its situation in other respects, it will nevertheless be of importance top
pay attention to the following particulars: Whether there be roads or
communications leading to, from, or near such lands; for if they do not
possess these indispensible conveniences he will find it a circumstance
attended with much trouble, as there should be a road at least within
three miles of him, if not more immediately contiguous. Whether they be in
the vicinity of, or have easy access to, a market of some kind, either
store, village, town, or city, as any one of them will generally answer
the generation that settle the land; grist and saw mills are equally
necessary, not forgetting the neighbourhood, neighbours, &c. And lastly,
but not of least importance, the security or validity of the title in the
land to be purchased. By paying due regard to these particulars, and
acting with discretion and prudence, he may proceed at once to his land,
and under the blessing of Divine Providence need not fear the result:
sobriety, industry, and perseverance, will be sure to crown his exertions
with the desired success.
In proceeding thus at length, after he has
surmounted all his preliminary troubles, to settle himself on his farm, he
will require to ascertain if provision can be got in its immediate
vicinity, if not to provide them in the most convenient place possible, as
it will be well to save the expense of carriage; otherwise he should buy
them in the town before starting. He should be also provided with suitable
axes for chopping, with strong hoes, a spade, grinding stone, pickaxe,
hand-saw, files, chissels, planes, a cross-cut saw, spoke-shave, hammers,
nails, hinges, locks, glass and putty. The axes, hoes, and grinding stone,
are what he will find necessary for clearing, but the other implements
will be found very convenient, as the settler will be able to do and get
done many useful and necessary jobs by being provided with them. Many, if
not all, of these articles may be got near the farm, especially the axes,
and if cheap it will be best to buy them there, otherwise to purchase them
where most convenient and cheapest. Loading, whether passengers or
luggage, will be conveyed for one penny a mile per cwt. land carriage, or
less, according to circumstances: French Canadians will cart cheaper than
any other, but the employed will remember to make the best bargain he can.
In travelling by land it is customary to carry provisions for the road;
and to stop at any farmer's house for refreshment, as public houses are
not always convenient on the different roads. It is in no wise recommended
to the settler of contracted means to buy horses for a new farm, on which
there is not much grass. A cow or two with a yoke of oxen (with a yoke and
chain to work and clear land) can be easily supported on brushwood, and
will live well in the woods, a few acres of which may be inclosed with
fallen trees, so as to prevent the cattle from straying away; but when
accustomed to get a handful of salt once or twice a week, they will always
return of their own accord; however a good cow-bell should be strapped
about the neck, to indicate, if necessary, where they may be found. Horned
cattle may be nearly supported during the winter also on hardwood tops and
brush wood. The following prices of cattle and articles are, what are
generally given at present in Canada; which will not be found, to differ
much in either province, unless when the size or breed make the
alteration: A much cow from 3£ to 5£; a working horse, from 7£ to 10£;
sheep from 7s. 6d. to 15s.; a yoke of oxen from 8£ to 12£; young pigs from
3s. to 4s., and, if six months old, from 10s to 15s.; a plough from 2£. to
3£.; an ass from 7s. 6d. to 10s., &c.; but from these rates there must be
often a deviation, as the season, place, and other circumstances, cause
the prices to be either below or above those mentioned. In all cases it
will be prudent for the settler to inquire concerning the value of such
articles in the neighbourhood where he is purchasing them, and to act
accordingly in making his bargain.
BUILDING.
A supply of such necessaries as the settler
may require being provided, a convenient lodging in the neighbourhood of
his farm, will be the best to procure until a log house can be erected. If
this cannot be provided, a log camp may be speedily erected in a few
hours, where a family can comfortably lodge for some time, and in which
(being built with logs and covered over with bark, split timber, boards,
or fir tops) more comfort will be found than expected, especially after
the confinement experienced by the emigrant on board ship. When this is
effected another camp may be erected in which to place his goods, and thus
he will find himself lodged at home on his own estate; which often gives
more real satisfaction than elegant and costly mansions do to the great.
Care should be taken that no large trees be left standing near the house
or camp, which in falling might reach it, as in consequence of having
their roots running near the surface they are liable to be laid prostrate
by a sudden gust of wind. It would be advisable for the settler, if he
have got the means, to employ a man accustomed to clear land for some
time, by which way he would in a short time become fully acquainted with
the business: or it would be well if he could contract for a job of three
or four acres to be cleared off, which generally costs from two to three
pounds per acre, the stumps of the trees being left in the ground, which
is not only the usual plan, but in fact the best and cheapest. This he
should get done round about the site of his intended buildings, which
ought to be in a dry situation, and near good water.
As soon as there is a sufficient space
cleared for building a log house on, straight logs may be got from the
timber cut down for clearing, or picked out up and down and drawn to the
building site:- the best timber for that purpose is pine, spruce, cedar,
hemlock, or fir; and if these cannot be got the straightest timber of any
other kind convenient. The log-house should not be longer than from
twenty-four to thirty feet at most, nor its breadth more than from twenty
to twenty-four feet; neither should the walls be raised more than ten or
twelve feet; for if the dimensions exceed these, as the logs decay they
will be apt to give out and fall. In general houses of this description
are not so large. Under the house should be dug out a good cellar, where
potatoes, and all such other provisions as may require this precaution,
could be preserved during winter from the frost, and in summer from the
heat. It will be found easier to do this before the house is built, and if
laid up with small logs, they will prevent the earth from falling in; the
cellar should not be within three feet of the breadth or length of the
house, and aught to be five or six feet deep, if the place can be
conveniently sunk so much. When a sufficient number of logs are provided,
the usual practice is for a few neighbours to assemble and assist the new
settler in laying up the walls of his house, each log being mortised half
way through at the angles for the cross one to rest in; and by this means
it becomes a firm building while the timbers last, which they may be
expected to do for about twenty years. On laying up the logs over the
parts intended for the doors and windows, notches are made large enough to
admit a saw, that when the walls are up there may be no trouble in sawing
them out to the proper size. When the rafters and ribs are set up, they
may be covered with shingles of split pine or spruce, or with boards, if
to be had near; but if these cannot be provided, the bark of elm, pine, or
spruce, may be easily peeled off in June or July, which makes a good
covering for a few years, and is again easily got and renewed. After the
house is covered in, if boards cannot be got, split basswood, fir, or
pine, is used for flooring, hewn smooth, and pinned to the sills or beams
of the floor. A house thus built, covered, and floored, may be got up for
about 10£. by contract, but will not cost half so much if the economical
plan here suggested be attended to; the owner will then have to finish it
off as may be convenient and suited to his taste. The usual practice is to
get small sashes and have them fitted in, a door hung on, stones collected
and a chimney built in one end of the house, moss and splinters of wood
stuffed well between the chinks of the logs, and plastered over with
mortar made of clay and sand; and after all this has been executed, the
house may be divided to suit the occupiers' comfort and wishes.
In such a house a family may live
comfortably, cheered by the gratifying reflection that they are residing
on their own estate, which will become more valuable every year, and for
which they have not to pay rent, taxes, nor any other of those charges,
which have been to them, while in their native country, a source of
perpetual uneasiness: where they can taste the sweets of freedom,
independence, serenity, and repose. At the approach of winter it will be
necessary to bank up the house with earth, about a foot high round the
foundation on the outside, in order to secure the cellar against frost,
and make the dwelling as warm as possible. In effecting these or other
local improvements, information and assistance may be always got from
those previously settled, who are ever found ready to contribute in every
possible way towards promoting the comforts of newcomer to the bush: a
fellow feeling that prevails, on such occasions, as well as a desire to
see their neighbours settled, causes all to interest themselves in the
welfare of the industrious new settler. A small pig or two may be
advantageously fed on the offal of the house, a yard being enclosed for
them, and the ensuing year they will be found to contribute to the
comforts of the family, after potatoes and other agricultural produce
shall have been raised. In parts where beech and oak grow, hogs feed and
fatten on the nuts and acorns, without any other assistance; but care
should be taken that they trespass not on the neighbours' crops. A few
fowls will also be a convenience, and are easily kept; it will be
necessary, however, to defend them from hawks, foxes, and any other
enemies to which they may be liable to fail a prey.
CLEARING LAND.
In clearing land to advantage, there is
need of much art and dexterity, and notwithstanding any directions that
may be given, a settler desirous of learning, will gain more by trying to
derive practical information from observing those who are well acquainted
with that business, than by volumes written on the theory. He is therefore
advised to observe for himself; or employ some person who has been brought
up in such work, or at least well acquainted with it; for, some will clear
an acre of land with one third of the labour that others have in doing so,
and labour saved in that way is as good as money saved. However, for the
information of the stranger, I will here add methods usually persued in
clearing, as he may not always find it easy to get such labourers as are
most profitable; and useful practical hints may occasionally prove
salutary.
A piece of dry land, or tolerably so, near
the house is the most, advisable to begin with. The most approved method
of clearing, especially if hardwood land, is to cut down the brushwood,
close to the ground, with a bush-hook or axe; in order to preserve the
edge, the blow should given up, but as close to the ground as possible,
that the stumps should not afterwards obstruct the harrowing. This should
be thrown in heaps, that when dry it may burn off the better, on burning
the other timber. When the brushwood is cut and piled on the piece
intended to be cleared, chopping down the large timber may be proceeded
with according to the following plan:- Observe to which side the tree
inclines, if to any, and on that side or near it chop in about two feet
from the ground; chop sloping dow, above, and straight in below, so as
that the stump shall be left quite flat. After having cut in more than
half way, minding to do it straight across, begin to cut on the opposite
side, about an inch or more higher than the former incision; and work in
as before, having one cut sloping down, and the other horizontal; when the
tree begins to crack or shake, it should be watched at each blow of the
axe, until you see it begin to fall; and then step one side, sufficiently
out of the way, as trees often bound, and are dangerous in falling. Care
should also be taken that it fall not upon another tree, as the getting it
down will be attended with some trouble and danger: dead, dry, or broken
limbs should also be watched lest they should fall on the chopper. Upright
trees may be made fall in any particular direction that may be desired, by
chopping first and deepest into the side at which it is required it should
fall; a little experience and observation, with presence of mind, caution,
and prudence, will only be necessary. When the tree is fallen the limbs
should be cut off into heaps, after which the body is to be cut up into
lengths of 10 or 12 feet; then take another and proceed in the same
manner, which will cause them not to interfere with one another. Six men
accustomed to this work, will, if diligent, chop about an acre in a day.
In about a month or six weeks, or sooner if in summer when the leaves are
on, the timber thus cut will be fit to burn, particularly if there be a
few dry days previous to firing it; it will be best to do so when there is
a light wind blowing from the buildings, and then the fire should be put
in the windy side of the field chopped down, and it will spread the better
among the fallen timber: it should be done about 10 or 12 o'clock in the
day. When the fierceness of the fire is past, the brands and small wood
may be thrown in heaps on the larger timber; and the heavy logs are
afterwards to be hauled together with oxen, or rolled with handspikes into
heaps, and burned off. As the piles are burned out, the ashes may be saved
for pot or pearl ash manufactories, being worth from six to ten shillings
per bushel for that purpose, if care be taken to preserve it from wet. The
land is then fit for planting or sowing in, and, if at a proper season,
the sooner the better after the fire becomes entirely extinguished.
Others again clear their land by first
chopping down the brushwood, leaving it scattered as it falls; after which
they cut down the large trees, and cut off the limbs, leaving them also
scattered as they fall, but do not chop up the body of the tree. When
sufficiently dry, it is set on fire as before, and let burn off; after
which, such logs as are not burned are chopped up, rolled or drawn
together in heaps, and burned off as already mentioned. When time or
labour is scarce in spring, many defer burning off the heavy timber, and
plant potatoes, Indian corn, or some other crops among the logs, which
answers very well when time does not admit of the land being wholly
cleared off, as when the crop is off in the fall the timber is easily
chopped and burned. The settler can pursue either plan, as both are
followed with success. He will of course perceive that what is meant by
clearing off the land does not include taking out the stumps of the trees;
as they rot out by degrees, and injure the land less by being left to do
so than by digging them out, a process in the course of which the poor
clay is drawn up to the surface: they will soon rot, and can be drawn out
or burned off with ease when dry. The stumps are very little in the way of
farming to advantage, as the ground may be ploughed and planted between
them without any difficulty, especially by a person accustomed to them;
their chief evil is the unsightly appearance they present to the eye of an
European, who is used to clear and level fields.
FENCING.
In clearing land, suitable timber may be
selected for fencing, and drawn or carried to the places where such
enclosures are to be made; but they should not be erected before the fire
is past, or it may burn them down again. Various methods of fencing are
resorted to, but if the place cleared be surrounded on all sides by the
woods, a row of trees felled one after the other, with such additions as
may be requisite, will be a sufficient temporary fence. When clearings
join the road or other clearings, a more regular fence will be requisite,
which is generally constructed on new lands, with logs cut twelve or
fourteen feet long, and about a foot or more thick; they are laid up
thus:- The largest are laid next the ground, lapping about a foot of each
end, side by side: some put a cross block under the lapped ends of the
logs, to raise them from the ground: on this row of logs is placed
another, with cross blocks under their ends, as under the first, and with
notches in the blocks for the end of the logs to lie in; and by again
laying on this another row of smaller logs as before, the fence is
completed, three rows high being generally sufficient, if the logs of
which they are composed be large. Some drive two stakes by each side of
every length of the Logs to cross at the top, on which they place long
heavy poles, to render the fence firm and strong. Others again lay up what
is called a zig-zag fence, which they construct with poles, and find to
answer very well; but the former will stand fifteen or twenty years and is
very firm. The settler may, as soon as he has got his land cleared please
himself by a choice of the many sorts of fencing used in the country; and
as good and firm ones are so very necessary to preserve the fruits of the
farmer's labour, he will do well to have his land sufficiently secured
that way, in order to guard against trespassers which would in a short
time ruin the prospects of a crop, if it were left at their mercy.
SOWING AND PLANTING NEW CLEARED LAND.
When the settler has a piece of land
cleared, he should not think of sowing wheat after the first of June,
although it is sometimes done in Lower Canada on new well burnt land, any
day during the first week of that month; the author himself had a good
crop of wheat which was not sowed till the eighth of June; but this should
not be depended on, and the earlier the better. Oats, barley, Indian corn,
beans, and rye, may be sowed on new land, the first ten days of June to
advantage, and potatoes may be planted all the month; but, as observed
before, the earlier the crops are put down, if the land be fit, the less
danger will there be of their being injured by the early frosts in autumn.
Wheat, rye, and peas require to be earliest sowed, and should be put in
ground as soon as ever it is free from frost in spring and fit in other
respects, but the above time is mentioned as the latest period for sowing
them. In such parts of new land as grain is to be sowed in, the piece
designed for that purpose should be harrowed among the stumps, in length
and across, with a harrow made like the letter A, and having nine large
teeth, two inches square, which should be drawn by the top by a strong
horse, or yoke of oxen; by this process the land is pulverized, and
considerably improved for receiving the seed. When this is done one bushel
of wheat, rye, or peas, will be sufficient for an acre, and of barley or
oats one and a half bushel. After sowing the seed, harrow the ground, well
as before, and should any remain uncovered, round stumps, or in any other
place out of the reach of the harrow, it may be covered in with a hand
hoe; many poor settlers, when they cannot procure harrows or oxen, hoe in
all their grain, and raise good crops. After it is harrowed in, it
requires no further labour till the crop is fit for cutting, unless to cut
down weeds or sprouts when they overtop it. With this cultivation wheat
will produce from ten to twenty five bushels or more per acre, but fifteen
is considered a fair return. Rye yields about the same produce, and will
do best in a light dry soil that may not answer for wheat; Oat, and Barley
from twenty to forty bushels per acre: Peas from ten to twenty bushels;
much of course depends on the care taken, the soil, season, and some other
accidental circumstances. Buckwheat may be sown about the last of June,
and will take about four gallons of seed to the acre; if it succeeds well
it will give a return of from thirty to fifty bushels.
After the smaller grain is sowed, Indian
corn, potatoes, and other vegetables, (unless those of the kitchen-garden,
which may be put down sooner,) depend the settler's attention. Indian corn
should be planted as soon as possible after the first of May, but may be
put later in new land than in old. After the ground has been harrowed, if
it be entirely cleared off, the planter having the seed in a small bag
tied round his, waist, commences the process of planting by striking his
hoe into the ground, raising the earth a little by lowering the handle,
and dropping in three, or four grains; then withdrawing the hoe, he takes
a step forward, treading down the earth on the seed, and striking it in
again about three feet from the former incision, so proceeds; the corn
being buried about two inches in the earth, and intervals of about three
feet being left between the rows and hills, it will require no other
attendance but weeding, until ripe. In every third or fourth hill or row,
two or three pumpkin seeds may be thrown in with the corn, as they grow
well with it, and when ripe are found very valuable to feed cattle or
hogs, the Americans also make good palatable pies of them. About a gallon
of Indian corn is sufficient to plant an acre, and if soaked in warm water
and copperas water, it will sprout the quicker; the copperas will also
have the effect of preventing vermin or birds from destroying it when
coming up. Some plant corn in new land, by scooping out a little earth
with the hoe, and, after they have dropped in the seed, cover it over in a
small hill; the former plan answers as well, and is done with much more
expedition. It will produce in a warm summer, from twenty to fifty bushels
per acre, and makes good bread or pudding, and is found a useful
ingredient in several other luxuries. It is a common thing to cut off the
tops a few inches above the ear or cob when it is full; which being dried
and carried home, make such fodder for cows, horses, and sheep, as they
are very fond of, and is, if well saved better than many sorts of hay. The
corn is ripe when the grain gets glazed in the ear, but must, when pulled,
be kept from lying too much in a heap, to prevent its growing mouldy. It
is usually gathered in September; the ears are broken off and thrown in
small heaps in the field; and as soon as convenient the husks are pulled
off, which may be done at night; after which the clean ears are spread
about six or eight inches deep on a dry loft or floor to dry and season.
Others make a crib two or three feet wide, and as long as may be
necessary, in which they put the cleaned ears of corn, and cover them in
to protect them from the wet; the air passing through hardens and dries
the grain. When hard it may be shelled, and if dry enough, ground up for
use; unless it be very dry will become mouldy when ground, if much be left
together; therefore the meal should be spread thin and loose in a box or
bin made for that purpose, else it will be soon unfit for use. Much then
of this should not be ground at once, unless extremely dry or kiln-dried.
Indian corn, besides being good for family
use, is good for fattening hogs, cattle, &c. and may, when ground, be
mixed with pumpkins or potatoes; the soft unripe ears are also picked out
at the time of harvest, and are excellent food for hogs, being thrown to
them without any further preparation:-in fact, Indian corn, when it
succeeds well, is one of the best productions of a new farm. The pumpkins
when the corn is being gathered, may be carted home, as they do not keep
well when, exposed to frost and thaws, and are therefore given to the
cattle and hogs in the fall or early in winter. Hogs fatten well on them
when cut up, and boiled and mixed with a little potatoes and meal; but
they may be given raw to the larger cattle, which are very fond of them:-a
great quantity will grow on an acre with the Indian corn.
Potatoes, the best root a farmer can raise,
and which are easily raised on a new farm, next demands the attention of
the settler. The quantity of seed required is about ten bushels to the
acre, the large round white potato being preferred. When the land, after
the burning off of the timber, is well harrowed according to the plan
already laid down, four or five cuts or seed ends are laid on the surface
of the ground, about six inches asunder, in a square; the earth is then
hoed up on them, forming a hill nearly as large as the contents of a
bushel measure emptied out; this plan is proceeded with, till the piece of
ground intended for that purpose be covered with these hills, which one
with another will occupy each about a yard square. Until fit to take up in
September, they will require to have no further labour expended on them,
unless weeding, which is seldom necessary. They are very easily taken out,
and may be deposited in small pits in the field, covered lightly with
earth, or put in the cellar of the house at once; otherwise, if wanted to
be kept till spring, they may be laid up in large pits, in a dry
situation, covered as usual with about two or three feet of earth, and
they will keep all the winter-but should not be opened till the April
following. They yield from two hundred to four hundred bushels per acre,
and the earlier planted after the middle, of May, the drier and better.
Turnips may be sowed in June or July in new
land, and require little attendance unless to thin or weed them: they
require to be lightly harrowed, and sowed before rain, and they will then
grow fast. Beets, carrots, parsnip, mangel wurzel and Swedish turnip,
require to be sowed earlier, and will do well-: all these must be sowed
broad cast, in new land. Melons, cucumbers, and other garden vegetables of
this description, grown in the open air, and are easily cultivated. French
or dwarf beans are planted in the same way as Indian corn, but not more
than one foot asunder, and are a very profitable crop for a family: the
white or mottled ones that do not run to vines are the best to plant, and
may be put down from the middle of May to the middle of June.
In saving crops of grain, potatoes, and
other vegetables, the same customs as in Europe may be followed, unless in
the additional care to prevent roots from the frost. The whole of the
crops in Canada when saved, are laid up in the barn, stable, root house,
or cellar. The Canadian farmers reap their corn greener than is generally
done in Europe, and spread it thin in the field as cut: after it has been
left lying for some days in fair weather, they bind it in large bundles
and carry it to their houses, which answers well in this country. They
also bind up their hay in bundles of fifteen pounds each, and sell these
by the hundred, equal to two thirds of a ton. It will be wisdom in the
settler to follow any good plan he may observe in useful operation among
persons long settled in the country, and so far as be is able, to improve
upon them; but not to make too much of a venture, until acquainted with
the climate and the country.
Such lands as are sowed with wheat, rye,
oats, or barley, should be laid down the first year with Timothy, or fox
tail grass seed or clover, and they will have a coat of grass for the next
year's use: the usual complement of seed for an acre is about two gallons
of grass with two pounds of red clover; but if the land be low or wet, two
pounds of red top grass seed will be sufficient for an acre without
clover. The grass seed may be mixed with the grain about to be sowed, and
all harrowed together, but others sow it when the grain is over the
ground, before rain; the former method however is preferred. Grass is
generally cut the latter end of July and the beginning of August, and in a
dry season, (as it usually is) is easily saved, put up in the barn, and
secured.
The settler should lay down in grass, each
year, the part he sows with grain, until he has his farm large enough; and
endeavour yearly to clear a sufficient extent for new crops; then in a few
years, what is first laid down in good heart will be fit to break up, and
most of the stumps will plough out.
In addition to what has been observed
respecting seasons it may be added, that in Upper Canada, and in the south
West parts of Lower Canada, the spring seasons are ten or fifteen days
longer than in the lower parts of this province, and the progress of
vegetation extremely rapid in all parts after the frost and snow depart.
Also for three hundred miles or more around Quebec, Montreal, or Kingston,
little difference is perceptible for or against the farmer in the settled
parts. The nearer the sea the deeper the snow lies in winter, and the
farther west the less snow or indeed frost; but always enough to prevent
vegetation, as when there is frost in Quebec it generally extends to the
utmost parts of Upper Canada, though it may not be so severe. During the
winter in the upper province, and to the south, there are many thaws
succeeded by frosts: in Lower Canada the season is more regular and
steady, but uniformly healthy and generally agreeable; and labouring men
can with little inconvenience work in the open air all seasons in the
year.
Having thus noticed the progress of
clearing and cultivating land on a new farm, it may be observed, that on
old cleared farms the same mode of farming as in the United Kingdoms may
be followed with success; subject only to such alterations as may be
necessary to suit the climate, secure the crops, and meet some other
contingencies: and also that fall or winter wheat and rye may be raised
well, though not usually done. As the hints contained in these pages are
not so much intended for the guidance of the farmer in farming, as of the
emigrant in settling, further observations on this head are deemed
unnecessary.
ON MAKING MAPLE SUGAR.
A branch of rural economy and comfort,
peculiar to North America, is necessary to be noticed for the information
of the emigrant, which is the manufacture of maple sugar. The settler
should examine his farm, and where he can get from 200 to 500 or more
maple trees together, and most convenient, that should be reserved for a
sugary. There being two kinds of maple, the hard and soft, the rock or
hard maple is the one to be preferred: both will make sugar, but this will
yield the sweetest sap and the brightest quality. If from among the trees
intended for this use the brushwood be cut down and removed, the business
can be carried on more conveniently. The process of sugar making is as
follows: As the sun gets power in the latter part of March, and beginning
of April, the sap begins to rise from the roots, and the trees are fit for
tapping: the sap continues, at intervals on fair days, to run for about a
month, until the sun gets too warm, and the buds swell out on the tree.
A large gouge or hollow chissel should be
provided, and a piece of dry pine or cedar got and cut into lengths of
about nine inches each. These pieces should be split into bolts, about an
inch thick, the breadth of the gouge; and these bolts again split up, with
the gouge, about a quarter of an inch thick, by which they will become
hollow spouts, like the instrument with which they are cut, for the sap to
run in: they should then be pared with a sharp knife at the end, to the
shape of the edge or point of the gouge, so that when it is driven half an
inch or so into the tree, the spout, also may be driven into the incision,
and fit it tightly. Troughs to receive the sap as it falls from the spout,
are made of pine, fir or ash, of a proper size, being about fifteen inches
through; such trees are cut up into lengths of two feet, which pieces
being split into two, each half piece is hollowed out with an axe so as to
contain about two gallons. A man accustomed to the work will make forty or
fifty troughs in a day, and they may be bought for about ten shillings per
hundred. Each tree of ordinary size will require one, and very large trees
two troughs. Those who can afford to get buckets instead of them will find
it an advantage, as much sap is thereby saved: they cost about ten pence
each. A tree will run about a bucket-full per day, on days succeeding
frosty nights with a moderately warm run to thaw the sap.
After all these have been prepared, one or
two of the troughs being placed under each tree, the person holding the
spouts, gouge and an axe, makes with the corner of the axe a small sloping
notch about an inch and a half long, and deep enough to penetrate into the
wood of the tree half an inch; the under side of the incision being cut
sloping down into the tree, so as that the sap may run to its lowest
point: if fit to tap, the sap is seen immediately, to ooze from the cut.
About an inch under that, the gouge is driven in for the spout as before
directed, through which the sap is conveyed down till it drops into the
bucket or trough at the foot of the tree, the cut being made almost two
feet from the ground: one man can thus tap about two hundred trees or more
in a day. Others for tapping are provided with an inch auger, with which
instead of making an incision with the axe, they bore a hole an inch deep,
and put in the spout an inch lower down as already directed: this though
more tedious is the best plan for the tree. One tapping generally answers
for a season, and the trees, if not greatly hacked, will do for a sugary
many years.
The sap is collected with a yoke and
handled buckets by a man every evening, or as the troughs get nearly full;
whence it is conveyed to the boiling place which should be a dry spot, -
the most central and convenient to the sugary. At the boiling place there
should be receivers, such as puncheons or barrels, to hold the sap until
boiled down; but when those cannot be got, large logs are hollowed out
with an axe for that purpose. The process of boiling the sap into sugar is
simple, and easily acquired: two stout crotches are fixed upright in the
ground eight or ten feet asunder, and on them is placed a cross stick from
which the pots or kettles are hung; a crook to hang them by being made of
a hooked piece of wood. The fire is made underneath of split or small wood
between two larger logs rolled on each side. The sap should be strained
into the boilers, and when boiling down, one boiler should be kept filled
from the other, and that again supplied from the receivers till the liquid
be boiled down to the consistency of sirrup. It is then taken up and
strained into a deep narrow vessel, there it is left to settle for a day
or two. When about being sugared off, it is carefully poured from the
sediment into a small boiler, and again hung over & slow fire; a little
milk, or a couple of eggs beat up, being put in to clarify it: as it
boils, it is skimmed, and after boiling about an hour to a proper
consistence, which is ascertained by practice and observation, it is
poured into vessels to cool, and stirred occasionally till cold. The
Canadians boil it so much, that when cold it forms hard solid cakes; to
make use of which, it becomes necessary to scrape it with a knife. It is
better, however, not to boil it so dry, but to pour it into a barrel after
boiling sufficently, and when cold, the sugar begins to crust on the
surface in a day or so; after which, by having a few gimlet holes bored in
the bottom of the barrel, the molasses will run off, and leave after it a
clean fair sugar, similar to, and better than, the best muscovado, and
more delicate in flavor- if care be taken in boiling, settling, straining
and cleansing. To prevent the sap or sirrup from boiling over, about an
inch square of fat pork should be thrown in once or twice a day, and it
will be found to have the desired effect. The scum, sediment, and last run
of the sap from the trees which is not good for suger, should be boiled
together one half down, and being barrelled, will by allowing it to
ferment, make good vinegar: it may be well, to put, in a little leaven or
yest, though it will answer without it. Each tree will average a produce
of about two pounds of sugar in the season, which extends to the end of
April. Two men will be able to attend from two hundred two five hundred
trees, and by attention will make good profit at a season, when they are
not wanted for other purposes; the sugar being worth from four pence to
seven pence halfpenny per pound. By a little examination and experience,
better than by any further direction, the settler may in a few days obtain
a perfect knowledge of the process; and if for a short time the labour be
found severe, the reward will be sweet.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON ASHES, SALTS,
TIMBER, &C.
Before bringing to a close the observations
relative to the course an agriculturist is to pursue on newly cleared
land, a few other remarks are added, which may be conducive to his
advantage on settling in the woods. The first is respecting the ashes that
may be saved of the heavy hardwood timber burned on the land; the sorts
producing the best for pot or pearl ashes are, elm, maple, basswood, large
birch, and brown ash; the same use can be made of all others that can be
got, but these mentioned produce most and best. In order to keep it
uninjured, as before observed, from wet or damp, when the timber is
burned, the ashes should be collected and placed in a bin or safe; this
may be simply made of small logs, floored with logs or boards, and covered
over head from the rain. They should not be put in or near a house, lest
if put in hot they might burn the building; they have been known also to
take fire if vegetable oil be poured on cold ashes. In such a safe or bin,
as has described, they may be preserved until sold or otherwise disposed
of; therefore care should be taken to preserve all that can be collected,
as they are worth from six pence to one shilling per bushel, according to
the price of pot and pearl ashes; and if a fair price can be obtained for
them in this state, it is better for the settler to sell them than boil
them himself, as he is not accustomed to the process.
The older settlers manufacture their ashes,
for sale to the country merchants, into what is called the salts of lye,
when there are no purchasers convenient to buy them before taken through
any such process. To effect this, they provide themselves with two or more
deep tubs called leeches, which hold six or eight bushels of ashes, with a
spigot in the bottom; they are placed on a stand a foot or two from the
ground, with troughs underneath them to receive the lye when it runs off.
A few brick, stone, or a handful of brushwood, are put inside over the
spigot, on which is placed a little straw to prevent the ashes running
through or rendering muddy the lye: over this the dry ashes are poured,
nearly filling the leech, and gently pressed down; on which is poured
boiling water for the first run, that is, until with it the ashes be
perfectly soaked through: cold water may be then used until the strength
is all taken from the ashes, which is known when the lye running off is
weak like water. Two or more kettles, as in sugar making, are hung over a
fire to boil down the liquid that has run from the ashes, one boiler being
kept filled from the other, and that again filled from the lye running off
the ashes, until all gets boiled down to the consistence of tar, which,
when cold, it as hard or harder than pitch. This substance is called salts
of lye, and is the pot or pearl ashes in a crude state; it is readily
purchased by all Canadian country merchants, who have pot or pearl ash
works in which this is again manufactured by another process not necessary
here to be described. Salts of lye can be sold in the country, if not for
more, at least for one-half the price that pot or pearl ashes will fetch
in the ports or cities. The ashes saved from an acre of good hardwood land
will produce three or four, and in some cases five cwt. of salts which
sells this year (1831) at seventeen shillings and six pence per cwt. A
handy man will boil 1 cwt. in a day, and almost sixteen bushels of good
ashes will produce so much. This resource is a great advantage to the new
settler, as it affords him some cash for clearing off his land, by
producing an article for sale, which is always in demand, from what would
be otherwise thrown away as being of no use to newly cleared land. The
boiling place should be made near soft water if it can be conveniently
got.
On land where much pine, spruce, or cedar
is found, and not far from streams of water on which, when cut, it can be
floated, the settler can sell to lumber merchants such timber, being worth
when standing from one shilling to two and six pence per tree, according
to size, distance from market, &c; but in case he can sell them delivered
on the bank of the stream, it may be his advantage to do so, and thus earn
the more from his own labour and resources. I would by no means advise him
to attempt taking the timber to market himself, but leave that to those
who understand it and make that business their avocation; his object
should be to clear his land, make a farm, keep it in good order when
cleared, raise necessary provisions for himself and s much as he can for
sale, a succession of settlers always causing a demand for the necessaries
of life. When once he is independent, comfort is the result, if not his
own fault; nor need he long be deprived of the injuries attending
independence and freedom.
As settlers extend their farms, the demand
on the spot for the surplus of their produce naturally decreases in
proportion as provisions become more plentiful: the farmer then by degrees
may raise and fatten hogs, beef, sheep, and horses; which will carry
themselves to market, though at a great distance, and in the different
large towns and cities, or near the fisheries or ports, meet a ready sale.
Thus, in the beginning of his settlement the emigrant can save his ashes
and valuable timber for sale; as these decrease in the course of
cultivation, the produce of the farm will more than compensate for the
want: and in this manner much may be gained from the wilderness while he
is extending his farm for the good of the country, himself, and his
family; with a sure prospect of ultimate success.
CONCLUSION.
To attain this desired result with
satisfaction, industry, sobriety, and perseverance, only are necessary.
The country affords the materials, which only require to be acted upon;
protected as it is by a powerful state, in the enjoyment of civil and
religious liberty; and where the law affects no man for his opinions and
actions, unless so far as his conduct may be personally injurious to
public or private interests. As this is the case in the Canadas, it would
conduce much to preserve the blessing of public tranquility, if every
emigrant and settler coming to this country would lay aside all political
animosities and other intolerant feelings, and to live and let live in
mutual forbearance and christian charity; having a portion of that kindly
feeling for our fellow men, that the Most High has for all. With such
sentiments and a watchful care to preserve the public rights, supporting
the government in all its constitutional privileges; and discountenancing
every effort made to the contrary, they settler may live and enjoy himself
in comfort and happiness; the birth right of every peaceable and upright
British subject. Note: There is also
another publication on similar grounds at
http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~wjmartin/emig1822.htm also
done by Bill Martin. |
